Father : Osman Gazi Mother : Mal Sultana Date of Birth : 1281 Date of Death : 1360 Reign : 1326 - 1359 Territories : 95.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Orhan Gazi was born in 1281. His father was Osman Gazi and his mother was Mal Sultana, the daughter of Omer, who was a respected person in the Kayi Clan. Orhan Gazi was tall, had a blonde beard and blue eyes. He was a benign, forgiving, religious and fair ruler. He admired the theologians. He had strong and patient character. He spent most of his time with his people or by visiting them. He had won the admire of his people in a short time.
Orhan Gazi became the leader of Kayi Clan after the death of Osman Gazi, in 1326. He had married to Teodora, the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Yoannis Kontakuzinas XI, in 1346. His second wife was Holofira the daughter of the Byzantine Prince of Yarhisar. Holofira eloped with Orhan by leaving her marriage ceremony with the Prince of Bilecik. After she was married to Orhan Gazi she was converted to Islam and her name was changed as Nilufer Hatun. She gave birth to Murad, who had been the third sultan of the Ottomans.
His sons : SuleymanPasha, Murad, Ibrahim, Halil, Kasim.
His daughters : Fatma Hatun.
MILITARY ACHIEVEMENTS
Orhan Gazi was a very brilliant soldier. His most important achievement was the invasion of Bursa on 6th April 1326. Orhan Gazi appointed Alaeddin Ali Bey as vizier whom captured the Province of Orhaneli, came to Bursa and besieged the city. Bursa was taken under control without an important skirmish. Afterwards, the centre of the state was transfered to Bursa from Bilecik.
On the other hand the famous commanders like Akcakoca, Karamursel and Abdurrahman Gazi took the castles of Kandra, Aydos, and Semendre. Thus, the territories of the Ottoman state were extended through Bosphorus and the Black Sea. Orhan Gazi spent his life in battle fields and won many victories, he organised a new troop called “Yaya”(infantry), in 1328.
The Ottomans captured the castles in Kocaeli Peninsula and came to the Bosphorus. Byzantine Emperor Andronikos III organised an army to take back the castles and to protect Iznik that was under siege. Orhan Gazi left some of his forces in Iznik and advanced through the Byzantine Army. Two armies came across in Palekonon (Maltepe) the region that named this battle. The Ottoman Army had defeated the Byzantine army (1329).
After this important victory Orhan Gazi returned to Iznik to continue to blocade the city. The commander of Iznik had lost his hope from the Byzantine Empire and claimed that he would have conditionally surrendered. Orhan Gazi had accepted the Commander’s conditions and commanded his soldiers to be kind to the people of Iznik. Thus, one of the most important cities of the Christian World was annexed to the Turkish sovereignty (1330).
Orhan Gazi continued his campaigns and he invaded Tarakli in 1331, Goynuk, Mudurnu, and Gemlik in 1333. Orhan Gazi conquered the important trading centre Izmit and its province (Koyunhisar, Hereke, Yalova, Armutlu ) in 1337. He gave the administration of the region to his son Suleyman Pasha.
In 1342 the castles of Kirmasti, Mihalic and Ulubat (Balikesir province) were conquered. With these conquests, the Ottomans had been neighbours with the Principality of Karesiogullari. Orhan Gazi conquered the Karesiogullari by benefiting from their throne struggles (1345). Famous commanders as Haci Ilbey and Evrenus Gazi from Karesiogullari joined the Ottoman Army moreover the navy of the principality was captured as well. The Marmara Islands, Uskudar and Kadikoy (Istanbul province) were conquered (1352). In 1354, the principality of Gerede was invaded and Ankara was conquered for the first time.
ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS
Orhan Gazi inherited 16.000 km2 land and he left his son Murad I 95.000 km2 land. Orhan Gazi was conscious about the necessity of an administrative system and he appointed Candarli Kara Halil Pasha and Alaeddin Pasha to regulate the administrative laws. Orhan Gazi put emphasis on three main points in the state administration; first money, second army and the third clothing. He appointed kadis (Muslim judges) for justice, and Subasis (police superintendents) for military issues for the lands he conquered. The first Ottoman coin was minted in 1326.
ARCHITECTURAL WORKS
Orhan Gazi put emphasis on landscape and city planning. Following the conquest of Iznik, the Ayasofia Church in Iznik was converted to a mosque in 1331. In 1333 the first Ottoman mosque, Haci Ozbek was built. The other monuments built in Orhan Gazi's period are, Iznik Haci Hamza Mosque and Dome, Iznik Green Mosque, Bilecik Orhan Mosque, Bilecik Orhan Gazi Imaret (Hospice), Gebze Orhan Mosque, Bursa Orhan Mosque, Iznik Sultan Imaret (Hospice). Beside these, he established a school, in Bursa.
MURAD HUDAVENDIGAR
(AMURATH I)
1359 - 1389
Father : Orhan Gazi Mother : Nilufer Sultana Date of Birth : 1326 Date of Death : 1389 Reign : 1359 - 1389 Territories : 500.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Murad I was born in Bursa, in 1326. His father was Orhan Gazi and his mother was Nilufer Hatun (Holofira) the daughter of a Christian Byzantine Prince. Murad I was a tall man with a round face and a big nose, he had a muscular body. He wore a cap with Mevlevi coins and a testar wrapped on it. He dressed up simple and he liked red and white cloths. He had his first education from his mother. Afterwards, he attended to Bursa Medrese (University) to complete his education and he lived with scientists, theologians and artists.
Murad I was a kind and a calm man. He admired the scientists and the artists. He was gracious to the poor and to the homeless. He was a genius soldier and a statesman. He acted very strictly planned and programmed all his life. Although he was considered as an infidel and an enemy of Christ by the Byzantine Church, he won love and respect of the people who lived in the lands he conquered as he never tyrannised them. Murad I began to be called as “Murad Hudavendigar” in 1382 (Hudavendigar means master in the Ottoman Turkish). Unfortunately, he was stabbed by the son-in-law of the Serbian King Lazar when he was walking through the battle fields after the first Kossovo Battle and he died (1389).
His sons : Yakub Celebi, Bayezid, Savci Bey, Ibrahim His daughters : Nefise and Sultan Hatun
ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS
First kazasker (Military judge) Candarli Kara Halil Pasha and first governor Lala Sahin Pasha were appointed by Murad I. Both were out of the ottoman family and for the first time non dynastic people were appointed to the important duties. Murad I legislated the Law of Timar. By this law, sipahi (cavalry soldiers) collected taxes to use in the times of war. They had organised military forces in their provinces. Until the 17th century with this legislation the Ottoman Army’s finance was solved without an extra effort. Also the law of Pencik that could be considered as the basic of the Yeniceri Corps was enacted (1361). By this law, the Christian children who were taken slaves from the conquered lands were taken to the Ottoman army and named as Devsirme.
Candarli Kara Halil and Kara Rustem Pashas introduced the first financial regulations to the Ottoman State in Murad’s sultanate.
All of Murad’s life had passed in the borders and in the battle fields. Murad I had always marched through to Anatolia from Roumelia, to Roumelia from Anatolia without resting or stopping. He commanded his army in all the battles. He acted in accordance with the commanders and the governors in his service.
Murad I conquered Eregli in the Black Sea, in 1360. He captured Ankara and Sultanonu from Ahis in 1361. In the same year he invaded Corlu, Kesan, Dimetoka, Pinarhisar, Babaeski, Luleburgaz and Gumulcine, Eski Zagra and Yenice province. All these victories were the results of Murat’s genius in politics, he always had good relations with the surrounding countries, but always acted tactfully.
Murad’s main target was to capture Edirne because of the city's strategic location. First, he invaded Edirne’s surrodings to hinder a Byzantine support. Next, the Turkish forces besieged the city under the command of Lala Sahin Pasha. The Greek and the Bulgarian armies had been defeated. The city hoped for a Byzantine aid but there was non, in the end they have surrendered (1362).
The BATTLE of DANUBE
With the conquest of Edirne, the Turks began to advance in the Balkans. In 1363, Lala Sahin Pasha campained to Bulgaria and invaded Filibe, Commander Evrenos Bey captured Serez. Turkish clans sent to settle in the new lands. As the result of the conquests of Edirne and Filibe, Papa Urban V provoked a new crusade. The Crusade was emerged by Serbians, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Bosnians and Wallachians. They had marched through Edirne. Ottoman Commander Haci Ilbey benefited from the crusaders’ irregular advance along the valley of Maritsa and he divided his forces into three and made a sudden attack at night. With this plan he victoriously defeated the crusades(1364).
This victory was named as the War of Sirp Sindigi in the history and it defined the Turkish Sovereignty in Roumelia. The Ottoman forces went to Bulgaria next and conquered the upper part of Bulgaria. The Bulgarian King Yuvan Sisman accepted the Ottoman sovereignty and gave his sister Maria to Murad (1369).
Murad campaigned to Macedonia and with the victory of Crimea in 1371, Macedonia was annexed into the Ottoman territories. Serbian King Lazar, accepted the Ottoman sovereignty and was assigned to annual tax. The Turkish forces under Candarli Hayreddin Pasha’s command won the victories of Salonica (1374), Nis (1375), Istip, Manastir, and Pirlepe (1382). The Ottoman forces campaigned to Albania and to Bosnia-Herzegovina. In 1385, Ohri was conquered. In the same year the Battle of Savra had won in Albania. One year later Sofia was conquered.
In 1381, Sehzade Bayezid was married to Devlet Sultana the daughter of the Germiyan Monarch Suleyman Shah and Kutahya, Simav, Egrioz, and Tavsanli were given to the Ottomans as a wedding gift. In the same year the Hamidogullari sold six cities to the Ottomans. While the conquests in the Balkans were continuing, Murad went to Anatolia. In 1386, the first Ottoman – Karaman battle was fought in the Konya plain.
1st KOSSOVIA BATTLE
The Turkish advance in the Balkans provoked a new crusade. The Ottoman army commanded by Vizier Candarli Ali Pasha defeated the Bulgarians and came across with the Crusaders in Kossovo. Even the most powerful crusade units were defeated by the cannons built by the command of Murat I. After this battle the Turks had proved their authority on the Balkans but Murad had died. Murad I was a very brilliant monarch. He extanded the state territories to 500.000 km2.
ARCHITECTURAL WORKS
Murad I was interested in architecture besides the battles and conquests. In his period many mosques, medrese (university), imarethane (hospice) were built in Bursa. Bursa Hudaverdigar Mosque, Bursa Sehadet Mosque, Alibe Hudaverdigar Mosque and Gelibolu Hudaverdigar Mosque were some of these. Edirne Palace was built in his time as well. Many mescid (small mosques), Turkish baths, kervansarays (inn), fountains, and bridges were erected. The tradition of giving salatu selam from minarets began in his reign.
YILDIRIM BAYEZID
(BAJAZET I)
1389 - 1403 Father : Murad Hudavendigar Mother : Gulcicek Hatun Date of Birth : 1360 Date of Death : 8 March 1403 Reign : 1389 - 1403
BIOGRAPHY
Bayezid was born in Edirne in 1360. His father was Murad I and his mother was Gulcicek Sultana. Bayezid had a round face, light complexion, ram nose, hazel eyes, blond hair, thick beard and large shoulders. Because of his bravery, he was called as “Yildirim”(thunderbolt).
He spent his childhood with his brothers in the Bursa Palace. He was educated by the famous scholars of the time. In his youth, he was appointed as the governor of Kutahya province. Due to Sultan Murad’s (Murad I) testament, he crowned in 1389 at the age of 29.
In Serbia, Stefan Lazaroevic son of the King Lazar crowned king. He came to Edirne for the peace treaty and he gave his sister to Bayezid and with this marriage, Ottoman – Serbian friendship was accomplished.
Unfortunately, Bayezid, was defeated in the Ankara War by Timur (the Mongolian Khan). Timur slaved him and Bayezid died in seven months twelve days. His sultanate took 13 very victorious years but ended very sadly.
His sons : Musa Celebi, Suleyman Celebi, Mustafa Celebi, Isa Celebi
His daughters : Fatma Sultana
STRUGGLE with the TURKISH PRINCIPALITIES
In 1389, just after the conquest of Bulgaria and Bosnia, Bayezid had been informed that; in Anatolia a chaotic situation had been appeared. He signed open-treaties with the Balkan States immediately, and returned to Anatolia. With the death of Sultan Murad I the Anatolian Clans had began to co-operate each other to attack the Ottomans.
Karamanogullari Clan invaded Beysehir, and began to provoke Saruhan, Mentese, Aydin and Germiyan Clans. Bayezid arrived Anatolia with Serbian forces and one by one he captured the lands of the rebelling clans. Candaroglu Isfendiyar had accepted the supremecy of the Ottoman Sultan.
1st SIEGE of CONSTANTINOPLE
The son of Serbian Emperor, Manuel, who asisted Bayezid as an obedient vassal of the sultan during the Karaman campaign, went to Constantinople, without permission. On hearing this Bayezid thought that this journey should had have a secret aim. Therefore, he cancelled his Hungary campaign and decided to besiege Constantinople.
He besieged the city both from the land and the sea (1391). But the Ottomans could not have managed to breakthrough the massive walls of the city and the siege had turned out to be just a blockade. With the Hungarian raid to the Turkish lands, the siege was withdrew.
The Hungarians commanded by King Sigismund attacked the Ottoman territories from the north (1392). The Turkish raiders were sent against them. After the Danube-Wallachia campaign, Salonica and its province were annexed (1394). Bayezid besieged Constantinople for the second time in 1395, because he was informed that another Crusade was emerged against him, this siege was failed, too.
The BATTLE of NIGBOLU
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As a result of the Ottoman victories in Roumelia and their advance through Bosnia and Albania, the Christian world had panicked. With Papa’s provocation the Hungarian King Sigismund commanded the Crusade composed of many European countries as France, England and Germany in May 1376.
The aim of this allience was to protect Constantinople, the city which had been under siege for five years. Crusaders besieged the Castle of Nigbolu located on the Danube's shore. The Ottoman commander Dogan defended the castle successfully until the Ottoman Army commanded by Sultan Bayezid had arrived. A very bloody battle had been fought (1396). Crusaders were defeated in the Battle of Nigbolu. At the end of the battle, the lands Crusaders had captured, had taken back by the Ottomans. Bulgarian Kingdom was ended and raids were organised through Hungary. After this victory the Crusades did not attack the Ottomans for fifty years. The Caliph of Abbasids called Bayezid as “The Sultan of Anatolia”.
After Nigbolu Battle, Constantinople was besieged for the third time. The Anadoluhisari (fortress located in Anatolian site of Istanbul) was built. However, lack of a powerful navy and huge cannons hindered the conquest. Therefore, Bayezid had begun to establish a powerful Ottoman Navy. He thought that Constantinople would have been surrender by the siege. But when the danger of Timur appeared, a treaty was signed with the Byzantine Empire and the siege was withdrew. By means of this treaty, a mosque in Sirkeci in Constantinople, an Islamic Court and a Turkish quarter were built.
In 1398, Karaman state and the Turkish states in the Black sea were conquered. One year later, Dulgadirogullari State was ended. Bayezid, also, battled against the Geneose Colony in Galata in Constantiople.
The BATTLE of ANKARA
Timur the Mongolian Khan got in to action to re-establish the Chengiz Empire. He invaded Persia and marched through India. The Emirs of Azerbaycan and Baghdat asked favour from Bayezid and they escaped to the Ottoman lands. Timur required the return of his prisoners but he was refused by the Ottoman Sultan and the relations between two rival empires had been ruined.
As Timur's anger was rousen he decided to raid Anatolia and he invaded Sivas. This was his first conquest above the Ottomans but not the last. He continued his campaigns. His army was consisted of superior soldiers and he was undoubtly was a military genius. He came across with the Ottoman Army in the Cubuk plain in Ankara. In this war, Kara Tartars in the Ottoman Army co-operated with Timur and the Ottoman Army had been defeated. Timur enslaved Bayezid. (July 20 1402).
This battle caused a break off in the history of the Ottoman Empire for 50 years. The community of Turks in Anatolia scattered, the Turkish states come into being again and they gained power. Disorder, chaos and confusion appeared in the lands of the Ottomans. Four different Ottoman States were declared by sehzades in four different zones. Bursa, Iznik, and Izmit were plundered and fired by Timur and Izmir was captured. This period of confusion and disorder, full of throne struggles, called as the Period of Fetret in the history (Interregnum).
ARCHITECTURAL WORKS
In Bayezid’s period many mosques, kulliyes (building complexes), medreses (university) were constructed. Timurtas Pasha Mosque, Mudurnu Yildirim Mosque, Bergama Ulu Mosque and Bursa Ulu Mosque are some of the important monuments that were constructed in his time.
Bayezid also had build the Anatolia Fortress in Istanbul, in 1396, it served as a step for the conquest of Constantinople. He built first Ottoman hospitals and clinics in Bursa as well. Bursa Medrese was built and Bursa had turned out to be a centre of science. Famous scholar Emir Buhari came to Bursa and he educated many students there.
CELEBI MEHMED
(Mohammed I)
1413 - 1421
Father : Yildirim Bayezid Mother : Devlet Hatun Date of Birth : 1389 Date of Death : 26 May 1421 Reign : 1413 - 1421
BIOGRAPHY
Mehmed I was born in Edirne in 1389. His father was Bayezid I and his mother was Devlet Sultan from Germiyanogullari. He was medium height, he had a round face, light complexion and a wide chest. He had a strong body. He was so energetic and brave. He was a very successful archer and wrestler. Mehmed had participated in 24 wars and he had more than 40 wounds. He was very good looking with his sarik (turban) on his head. He used to wear a caftan.
Mehmed treated equally to the Muslims and the Christians. He was a brilliant statesman and a politician. He completed his education in the Bursa Palace. Then he was appointed as the Governor of Amasya. During this duty he improved his skills in state administration.
Sultan Mehmed united all the clans in Anatolia, and he put an end to the period of Fetret (Interregnum), thus he was named as the second founder of the Ottoman Empire.
Sultan Mehmet Celebi had died in Edirne, in 1421. His death was hidden from the army and the people. He was the first sultan whom death was concealed. He was buried in the Yesil Turbe (Green Tomb) in Bursa.
His sons : Mustafa Celebi, Murad II, Ahmed, Yusuf, Mahmud. His daughters : Fatma Sultana, Selcuk Sultana.
The Period of Fetret (INTERREGNUM)
After the Ankara Battle, the Turkish unity in Anatolia was desolved and the Ottoman Empire faced with the danger of destruction. The sons of Bayezid I had began a throne struggle after his death. Thus, the most chaotic interragnum had began in the Ottoman history. Because of the Byzantine intrigues and Timur’s destruction the civil war had begun among the shehzades. Suleyman Celebi in Edirne, Isa Celebi in Bursa, Mehmed Celebi in Amasya, and Musa in Balikesir declared their own sultanates.
Mehmed and Musa made an allience, and killed Isa. Mehmed knew that Suleyman must have been killed too. For this purpose, he sent Musa against Suleyman to Edirne. Musa had defeated his brother Suleyman and invaded Edirne, but did not keep his promise and declared himself as the sultan of Edirne. In 1413, Mehmed defeated Musa and he ended the interregnum.
STRUGGLE in ANATOLIA
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Mehmed I restored the Turkish Unity and renewed the stable foundations of the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards, he declared himself as the sultan of the Ottoman State.
Unfortunately, during the Interragnum most of the territories in Anatolia were lost. Mehmed immediately began to make plans to take back those territories.
In 1414, he invaded Izmir from Aydinoglu Cuneyd. The states of Saruhan and Menteseoglu were annexed in to Ottoman territories. A campaign was arranged against the Karamanogullari who attacked Bursa. Karamanoglu Mehmed demanded forgiveness of the sultan, and Mehmed forgave him and gave permission to live in his own land. The State of Candarogullari, which was established during the Interregnum was annexed.
CAMPAIGNS in ROUMELIA
After all these victories, Mehmed returned to Roumelia. The Princedom of Wallacia was attacked and imposed to annual tax.
Next, Mehmed had improved the naval forces established in his father’s period and the first sea wars were done (1486).
REVOLT of SEYH BEDRETTIN
After Mehmed had restored the unity in Anatolia and Roumelia, he struggled with two revolts. One was the revolt of Seyh Bedrettin, the other was the revolt of Duzmece Mustafa. Seyh Bedrettin was born in Simavna near Edirne and he was educated in the important scientific and cultural centres as Bursa, Konya, and Cairo.
Seyh Bedrettin and his friends Torlak Kemal and Borkluce Mustafa designed a tarikat (sect) in Iznik and they have began to provoke people with extremist islamic ideas. After a while, Seyh Bedrettin and his friends came to Deliosman and started a riot. In Izmir Borkluce Mustafa and in Manisa Torlak Kemal joined to the revolt. Mehmed sent his forces to Izmir and Manisa and repressed the revolt. Seyh Bedrettin was caught and after he judged by Kadi (Judge) of Serez, he was sentenced to death.
The REVOLT of DUZMECE MUSTAFA
After the Battle of Ankara, Mustafa Celebi (known as Duzmece Mustafa) went to Samarkand with Timur. Following the death of Timur, Mustafa had returned to Anatolia. He was planning to ascend to the throne by dethroning Celebi Mehmet. He co-operated with the Prince of Wallachia and revolted in Salonica. Afterwards, he escaped to the Byzantine Empire but Celebi Mehmet gave money to Byzantine Empire and imprisoned him.
ARCHITECTURAL WORKS
Mehmed I restored the Turkish unity in Anatolia and began to develop the country. He constructed medreses, hospices and many mosques. Amasya Bayezid Pasha Mosque, Merzifon Celebi Mehmed Sultan Medrese, Bursa Green Mosque, Dimetoka Celebi Mehmed Sultan Mosque, Old Mosque in Edirne and Edirne Yildirim (Thunderbolt) Mosque are some of them.
MURAD II
(Amurath II)
1421 - 1451
Father : Celebi Mehmed Mother : Emine Hatun Date of Birth : 1402 Date of Death : 3 February 1451 Reign : 1421 - 1451
BIOGRAPHY
Murad II was born in 1402. His father was Mehmed I and his mother was Emine Sultana from the Dulkadirogullari State. He was a tall man with light complexion, he had a falcon nose and a beautiful face.
He spent his chilhood in Amasya and he ascended to the throne at the age of 19. He was a perfect orator. His greatest happiness in life was his excellent son Mehmed (Mehmet the Conqueror).
Murad II was essentially a man of peace and he prefered to lead a quiet life. But, he had wars and threats of wars thrust continually upon him. He was a very bold, energetic soldier and he ruled his country gloriously and honourably for 30 years. He won the love and respect of the Ottoman people for his spirit of honour and justice, his sincerity and simplicity.
His sons : Mehmed II (The Conqueror), Ahmed, Alaeddin, Orhan, Hasan, Ahmed. His daughters : Sehzade and Fatma Sultana.
INCIDENT of DUZMECE MUSTAFA
The Byzantine Empire provoked Mustafa Celebi (Duzmece Mustafa) to dethrone Murad II. His main goal was to start a civil war and benefit from the confusion. Some of the Anatolian Turkish States supported Mustafa Celebi.
Mustafa Celebi defeated Sultan Murad’s army and declared himself as the sultan of Edirne. However, he was caught by the Ottoman Army in Ulubat and executed. Murad II established a new military force called Azeb in 1421, and marched through the Byzantine Empire who had the biggest role in the revolt of Mustafa Celebi and besieged Constantinople.
STRUGGLE with ANATOLIAN STATES
During the siege of Constantinople, Murad II informed that his brother Prince Mustafa (13 years old) revolted and besieged Bursa by provocation of the Byzantine Empire and encouragement of the Anatolian Turkish States. Thus, he left the siege and returned to Anatolia and quelled the rebellion. Prince Mustafa was caught and executed. Murad II found a permanent solution to the revolts of the Anatolian states by annexing them (Aydin, Mentese, Teke and Germian States).
ACTIVITIES in ROUMELIA
Murad II campaigned to Serbia and he imposed the Serbian king to tax. He annexed Salonica, Macedonia, Teselya and Yanya . With these victories Albania accepted the supremecy of the Ottoman Sultan. Also the Ottoman forces were sent above the Prince of Wallacia Vlad who revolted and Princedom of Wallacia was annexed.
These successes of the Turks in the Balkans were threatining both the Byzantine Empire and the other European countries. To save their countries they have organised a new crusade against Sultan Murad II. With Prince of Transylvania Hunyadi Yanos’ ambush 20.000 Turkish soldiers were killed. In addition, all the Turkish states under the Ottoman authority were libareted. The Ottoman Army was struggling with the revolts and attacks but they failed nearly in every war. This hopeless situation of the Ottoman Army was encouraging the Crusades. With “Battalion War” tactic, the Crusaders defeated the Ottoman army. This was the first Ottoman defeat in Roumelia.
SEGEDIN PEACE TREATY
The Crusaders grew stronger with the Ottoman withdrawals. The forces of Serbia, Wallacia, Transylvania and Hungary were advancing. They defeated the Ottomans in Nish and marched to Filibe. But, they were stopped by the severe colds.
The defeats in the Balkans led the Ottomans in a difficult situation. On the other hand Byzantine provocation was continuing. Under these circumcanses, the best solution was an agreement. Thus, Murad II made some connections, then on 12th June 1440 the Segedin Peace Treaty was signed. For providing a continual peace all the kings swore on the God's name. By this treaty the Ottomans have found some time for recovery. The Danube River was accepted as the first Ottoman border line.
SEHZADE (PRINCE) MEHMED (the Conqueror)
Murad II left the throne after the treaty of Segedin and went to Manisa. 12 years old heir apperant Mehmed ascended to the throne. However, the state had confused. Moreover, in Europe a new Crusade had organised against this nearly infant sultan. Mehmed II wrote a letter to Sultan Murad II and invited him to the throne.
Mehmed’s famous letter:
If you are the sultan, you have to lead your country in this unfortunate situation. Please, come in front of your army. If I am the sultan, I remind you to obey my commands and I command: Come in front of your army.
BATTLE of VARNA
Murad II had arrived Edirne quickly. The Ottoman army under his command advanced to Varna and attacked the Crusade and defeated them on 10th November 1444. This was the last Crusade organised to prevent Costantinople from a Turkish conquest. After the Battle of Varna all the compulsive conditions made the Turks sign the Treaty of Segedin had disappeared. For some time later, Sultan Murat left the throne again, but, with insists of the statesmen he had returned.
2nd KOSSOVO BATTLE
Four years after The Battle of Varna, the Hungarian King Jan Hunyard, invaded Serbia with his army composed of Hungarians, Wallacians, Polish, and Germans. He entered to the Ottoman territories and came to Kossovo. The first attack came from Jan Hunyard. On the 3rd day of the battle, the Ottomans defeated Jan Hunyard by a fake withdrawal (19th October 1448). With the 2nd Kossovo Battle the Balkans definitely became a Turkish homeland. The crusaders could never tempted to attack the Ottomans again.
ARCHITECTURAL WORKS
During Murad’s reign many mosques, medreses, palaces, and bridges were built. Bursa Muradiye Mosque and Edirne Muradiye Mosque which were built with Kulliyes carries his own name. Also, Edirne, Gazi Mihal Mosque, Amasya, Yorguc Pasha Mosque, Filibe Sehabettin Pasha Mosque, Uskup Alaca Ishak Bey Mosque, Uskup Sultan Murad Mosque, Edirne Shah Melek Pasha Mosque, Edirne Beylerbeyi Mosque, and Karaca Bey Mosque were built in his reign. There were a medrese (university) and an imarethane (hospice) near the Edirne Mosque with three Serefes (Balcony) which were also built by Murad II. This mosque’s walls and altars were decorated with extremely beautiful tiles. Murad II also built the 170 shafted Uzun (long) Bridge, which was on the river of Ergene.
The great bridge in the town of Basikhisar near Ankara had been built in Sultan Murad’s period and he sent its income to Mecca. He had been sending pilgrims and private officers called Surre-i Humayun to the Kabe in Mecca for the restoration of the holy places. In his reign many books had been written and many foreign books had been translated into the Ottoman language.
Murad II was a poet and calligrapher himself. He used to use the pen name Muradi and wrote many poems.
FATIH SULTAN MEHMED
(Mohammed II)
1451 - 1481
Father Name : Murad II Mother Name : Huma Hatun Date of Birth : 29.03.1432 Date of Death : 03.05.1481 Reign : 1451 - 1481 (30 years) Territories : 2.214.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Mehmet II was born on 29th March 1432, in Edirne. He was the son of Sultan Murad II. His mother was Huma Hatun. He was a tall, strong and muscular man.
Mehmet II was a statesman and a military leader. He was also interested in literature, fine arts and monumental architecture. He was educated by famous scholar Aksemseddin. Mehmet was speaking seven languages fluently. Another worthy tribute to the Ottoman ruler is the famous portrait of him by Gentile Bellini. He also interested in philosophy and science. He invited Ali Kuscu the famous astronomer to the observatory in Istanbul.
Mehmet II was ascended the throne in his 20th year.He took the name “conqueror” (fatih) after the conquest of Istanbul on 29th May 1453.
The conquest of Istanbul spelled the end of the Byzantine Empire and entered a phase of urban revival under the wise and tolerant administrations of Mehmet and his immediate successors. The capture of Istanbul was followed by a long succession of campaigns which resulted in a tremendous extension of direct Ottoman rule. Among those areas that fell to Mehmet II were Serbia, Greece, the Empire of Trezibizond, Wallachia, Bosnia, Karaman, Albania and several Venetian and Geneose maritime establishments.
He ruled the Ottoman Empire for 30 years and joined 25 campaigns himself. He was a very strict statesman and a very brave soldier. He took place in front of his army in the wars and he encouraged his soldiers.
The emperor had died on 3rd May 1481. He was buried in “Fatih Turbesi” (tomb), near the Mosque of Fatih in Istanbul.
Sons: Mustafa, Bayezid II, Cem, Korkut Daughter: Gevrehan Sultana The CONQUEST of ISTANBUL
From the moment of his accession all Mehmet’s thoughts were directed to the great enterprise of giving the mortal below to the Byzantine Empire and transferring the seat of his government to Istanbul, as the natural capital of a dominion situated on both sides of the Golden Horn (Halic).
PREPARATIONS
Fatih was aware of the fact that, the capture of Istanbul would brought a commercial and cultural richness to his Empire. Moreover, he would took control of the straits and the Black Sea. The famous engineers of the time, as Musluhiddin and Saruca Sekban designed new cannons. Those huge cannons had a great role during the conquest.
On the European side, about five miles above the city, where the channel is the narrowest, Sultan Mehmet raised a fortress opposite to one on the Asiatic side which had been erected by his predecessor Yildirim Bayezid. These fortifications were called the castles of Europe (Roumelia) and Asia (Anatolia). They were intended to command the intervening waters and to secure a point constituted by nature on the high road for both continents.
During those preparations, the peace treaties with Wallachia and Serbia were renovated and a peace treaty was signed with the Hungarians.
The Byzantine Empire was preparing as well. They were stored food for a possible long term siege and they were restoring the city walls. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine heard of the rise of massive towers in his neighbourhood and his anxiety had increased. He asked for the help of the Christian World, but the Pope desired to unify the Orthodox and the Catholic Churches together and the struggle between two Churches had been raised, the Emperor had to forgot a new Crusade.
The SIEGE and the WAR
After the preparations had been finished Sultan Mehmet sent a messenger to the Emperor and invited him to surrender. However, Constantine rejected this request. In April 1453 Sultan Mehmet invested the city with an army of a hundred and twenty thousand men, desolated the environs and confined the inhabitants within their walls. The army was divided in to three, central, left and right. In April 19 the first attack was made. Roller towers were constructed to reach the city walls.
There was a very bloody war going on and the Venetian and Genose navies were helping the Byzantine Empire. Mehmed had realised that unless the Ottoman Navy did not involved in the war, it would very difficult to capture the city. However, the entrances of the Golden Horn(Istanbul Strait) were surrounded with huge chains and it was impossible to enter. As a genius commander Sultan Mehmet had designed a mechanism to slide the ships from the land to the sea. Huge slides were built and they were oiled and the ships were moved downwards, on 22th April, 72 Turkish ships were located on the Golden Horn and began to bombard the city walls.
Because of the long and bloody wars, the Ottoman Army began to lose faith, but, Sultan Mehmet never lost his faith and bravery, he made an oration to his soldiers and declared that on May 29 the fatal attack will be made and Istanbul will be captured. As he told, 29th May the fatal attack was made and a company led by Hassan of Ulubad crossed the ruins in the ditch, gained the breach and mastered the position. The Emperor Constantine fell in defending it. Istanbul has fell.
The siege took 53 days, there were four great attacks of Sultan Mehmet’s army; one in April 19, one in May 6, one in May 12 and the last one in May 29. In the end, 1125 years old Byzantine Empire had came to an end and Istanbul became a Turkish city.
The RESULTS of the CONQUEST
After the Conquest of Istanbul, Mehmet the Conqueror took many campaigns in Europe. He invaded Sebia (1454-1459), Mora (1460), Wallachia (1462), Moldavia (1476), Bosnia, Albania and he marched through Italy and captured Otranto but after his death the city was lost again.
The CONQUEST of the CRIMEA and the BLACK SEA
Mehmet the Conqueror wanted to rule the Black Sea and to blockade the Venetian and Geneose authority and slave trade in that region. In 1475, he invaded Crimea and the Black Sea became a Turkish Lake. Moreover, he took the control of the Silk Road.
The WAR of OTLUKBELI
The ruler of the Karaman’s Ibrahim died in 1464 and his successors had fallen into a throne struggle. At last, Ishak Bey accessed the throne by the support of Uzun Hasan the ruler of the Akkoyunlu State. However, Pir Ahmed (brother of Ishak) rejected Ishak’s accession and asked for an Ottoman support. Mehmet the Conqueror helped Pir Ahmed and enthroned him by dethroning his brother Ishak. But, Pir Ahmed made an agreement with the Venetians and ruined his relations with the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Mehmed organised a campaign to the Karaman State immediately. He captured Konya and Karaman, the people of these regions had immigrated to Istanbul. Pir Ahmed escaped to Akkoyunlu State and the Akkoyunlu-Ottoman relations had ruined.
Akkoyunlu State was located in the Eastern Anatolia, Caucasusia, Iran and Iraq. The Ottoman Empire’s land was on the West Anatolia and Europe. On 11th August 1473 in Otlukbeli, two armies came across. The Ottoman Army was very well organised and they had the most powerful weapons of the time. In few hours, the Akkoyunlu Army was defeated and the Akkoyunlu threat had disapeared.
SITUATIONS on the SEAS
With the conquest of Istanbul the Ottoman Empire took the control of all the commerce roads. However, the Venetian and Geneose trading was continuing. Sultan Mehmet decided to take all the control of the seas, and began to campaign to the Aegean Islands. He built new ships and dockyards.
ADMINISTRATION and the REGULATIONS
Mehmet the Conqueror can be named as the second founder of the Ottoman Empire. After the conquest of Istanbul he declared himself The Emperor of The Byzantine (Kaiser-i Rum) and established governmental institutes. First written construction was made by him and named as Kanunname-i Ali Osman (Laws of the Ottoman State). He gave his grand vizier authority to co-ordinate the divan (council). He began to observe the meetings of the council behind a curtain.
Mehmet the Conqueror moreover, classified the governmental duties and defined the ranks of the officers as defterdar(finance minister), kazasker (chef military judge). He established a central administrative system and organised a very powerful army.
He conquered the lands that had been lost in the reign of Yildirim Beyazid. With the capture of Crimea, Turkish sovereign in the Black Sea was proved. All the clans, principalities and states were unified in the Anatolia. The Turks had advanced through Belgrade.
In his reign many famous poets, scientists, philosophers came to Istanbul and Istanbul turned out to be the centre of arts and culture.
ARCHITECTURE
Mehmet the Conqueror was a great statesman and during his reign the Ottoman lands entered a period of urban revival. In this period, 300 mosques, 57 universities (medrese), 59 baths, 29 covered markets (bedesten), many palaces, fortresses, castles, inns and bridges were constructed. In Istanbul, he transformed 8 churches in to mosques, one of them is famous Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya).
In 1470 the construction of Fatih Kulliyesi (University) was finished. Eyup Camii and Fatih Camii are the important mosques built in this period as well.
Famous Kapali Carsi (Covered Market) was built and became an important trade centre. The Topkapi Palace was built in Sultan Mehmet’s reign as well.
BAYEZID II
(Bajazet II)
1481 - 1512
Father Name : Fatih Sultan Mehmed Mother Name : Mukrime Hatun Date of Birth : December 3, 1447 Date of Death : May 26, 1512 Reign : 1481 - 1512 Territories : 2.375.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Bayezid was born in Dimetoka on 3rd December 1448. He was the son of Mehmet the Conqueror. His mother was Mukrime Hatun. Bayezid was a brave, religious and a calm man. His father Sultan Mehmet II was an admirer of science and he put great emphasis on his son’s education. As all the sehzades of the Ottoman Empire, Bayezid was also very well educated by the famous scholars of the period.
He was only seven when he was appointed as the Governor of Amasya a centre of culture and civilisation since The Seljuk Empire. This city was ideal for the education of an heir apperant.
Sultan Bayezid II was a very religious man and very fond of literature. He invited many famous poets to the palace. He was so gracious that he always helped the poor. He had spoken Arabic and Persian fluently, afterwards, he learnt Cagatay and Uygur dialects. Besides theology, he studied philosophy and mathematics. He left the throne on 24th April 1512 and passed away one month later.
His sons: Mahmud, Ahmed, Seyidsah, Selim, Mehmed, Korkud, Abdullah and Alimsah.
His daughters: Aynisah, Gevher, Muluk, Hatice, Selcuk and Huma
CEM SULTAN
Cem was the younger brother of Sultan Bayezid. When Mehmet the Conqueror had died, Bayezid was the governor of Sivas, Tokat and Amasya, Cem ruled the province of Karaman and Konya.
Karamani Mehmet Pasha the last grand vizier of Sultan Mehmet II sent two messengers to both of the shehzades just after the death of Sultan. But the messenger sent to Cem had been caught on the way by Sinan Pasha the Anatolia Deputy. Cem could have learnt his father’s death four days later. The Yeniceris revolted and killed Karamani Mehmet Pasha as a result of this event. They enthroned Korkut the son of Bayezid as the regent (May,4 1481).
Prince Bayezid arrived Istanbul on 21st May 1481 and was declared Sultan. Cem on the other hand arrived Inegol on 27th May 1481 with his 4000 soldiers. Sultan Bayezid sent an army led by Ayas Pasha on Cem. On 28th May 1481 Cem had defeated Bayezid’s army and he declared himself Sultan of Anatolia and made his capital Bursa. He proposed division of the empire, with Bayezid ruling only Europe. Bayezid rejected the proposal, of course, defending the continued unity of the Ottoman State. He marched through Bursa and the decisive battle between the two took place near Yenisehir. Cem lost the battle and took refuge in the Mameluke State with his family. He went to Cairo.
In Cairo Cem has received a letter from his brother. In this letter, Beyazid offered Cem one million akces(Ottoman money) in order to dissuade from the throne. Cem rejected this offer and came to his homeland. On 27th May 1482 he besieged Konya. The Ottoman Army commanded by Sultan Bayezid went to Konya, Cem ended the siege and withdrew to Ankara. He was intending to go to Cairo again but all the ways had been kept by Bayezid. Meanwhile, Pierre d’Aubusson one of the Knights of Rhodes invited Cem to Rhodes.
On 29th June 1482 Cem went to Rhodes. He was planning to leave the island in a short time, and he made an agreement with the knights about his departure. But, the knights had deceived him and they did not permit him to depart from the island. Cem began to live a prisoner’s life in Rhodes. Eventually, this was very unfortunate for Cem himself and for the Ottoman Empire.
Afterwards, Cem was sent to France. Sultan Bayezid sent a messenger to France and requested Cem to be kept there.
Pope Innocent VIII intended to organise a new crusade using Cem. But, he could not had been successful as the other European countries rejected. He offered Cem to convert to Christianity. Cem of course rejected this offer. Afterwards, the Pope had taken more than 40.000 gold annual, from Bayezid for Cem’s expenses. The Ottoman Empire had stopped the campaigns as the Pope threatening them with Cem’s liberation.
After all these events, Cem Sultan had died in February 25, 1495. Sultan Bayezid declared national mourning for three days. He also tried to take Cem’s body from the Pope, but, four years later after Cem’s death his body was brought to the Ottoman lands. He was buried in Bursa.
THE BALKANS
The first step in Sultan Bayezid II’s policy was to advance in Roumelia. Bosnia was captured during Mehmet II’s period. But, Herzegovina could not have captured yet. He sent raiders to this region and they invaded in 1483. The castles of Kilia and Akkerman in Moldavia were captured and Moldavia was imposed taxes. In 1491, Hungary campaign was made. In May 1499, Greece Campaign was made.
The SAFFAVIES and SHAH ISMAIL
In the period of Beyazid II, the Saffavies ruled by Shah Ismail, were dominating Iran. In 1501, Shah Ismail captured the city of Tabriz and he extended his power. Many Turkmen groups had accepted his authority. Shah became very effective especially in Iran and Azerbaycan. As he grew stronger, he became a threaten for the Ottoman Empire in the Eastern Anatolia. He sent many provocateurs to Anatolia in order to rebel the Ottoman subjects against the empire.
The Shah’s propaganda against the Ottoman Empire grew very effective that on 9th April 1511; in Hamideli an Ottoman called Shah Kulu (servant of Shah) had revolted. He was caught and executed but with his revolt the empire was driven in to a chaotic condition. The sehzades found their father’s policies very weak and they began a throne struggle among themselves.
The WAR with the VENETIANS
After the conquest of Istanbul, Venice had entered a period of economical decline. They left the Crusade Union after Mehmet the Conqueror gave them capitulation. They began to agitate the people of island of Morea as they always followed an anti-Ottoman policy. Sultan Beyazid II had decided to solve this problem by a war.
In 1499, Inebahti, Moron, Koron and Navarino were captured. Afterwards, the Ottomans began to invade the Aegean Islands. The Venetians realised that it is impossible to defeat the Ottoman army and navy and they requested an agreement. The agreement was signed and lands captured by the Ottomans were given back to the Venetians.
SHEHZADE SELIM
Sultan Beyazid II had eight sons. But, five of them had premature deaths except; the oldest Ahmet, Korkut and the youngest Selim. Ahmet was the governor of Amasya, Korkut was ruling Manisa and Selim was the governor of Trabizon.
The statesmen were planing to dethrone Bayezid II and enthrone Ahmed. But the Yeniceris' favorite was Selim. Ahmed failed to win the throne struggle and the statesmen invited Korkut to the throne, but the Yeniceris rejected his sovereign.
Sultan Bayezid could have not resisted anymore, he invited his son Selim to Istanbul and left the throne in 1512. The Ottoman territories was 2.214.000 km2 when Bayezid was ascended and he left his son 2.375.000 km2 of land.
ARCHITECTURE
Sultan Bayezid II had had built many great monuments in Istanbul. In 1505, Istanbul Bayezid Mosque was completed, on 14th September 1509 Istanbul was destroyed by an earthquake and in 1510 the city was began to be restored.
Some monuments constructed in Bayezid II’s period are; Istanbul Davud Pasha Mosque, Hatuniyye Mosque in Tokat, Bayezid Medrese in Amasya, Bayezid Mosque in Edirne, Bayezid Medrese in Istanbul, Shehzade Mosque in Istanbul.
YAVUZ SULTAN SELIM
(Selim I)
1512 - 1520
Father Name : Bayezid II Mother Name : Gulbahar Sultan Date of Birth : 10th October 1470 Date of Death : 21st-22nd September 1520 Reign : 24th April 1512-1520 ( 8 years ) Territories : 6.557.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Yavuz Sultan Selim was born on 10th October 1470. His father was Sultan Bayezid II and his mother was Gulbahar Sultana from Dulkadirogullari State. Selim I was a tall and a strong man. He was a very brave soldier and naturally tough. He was very well educated. Selim was very much interested in science and theology beside the governmental issues. He attended the lessons of famous scholar Mevlana Abdulhalim.
During the sultanate of his father Bayezid II, Selim was appointed as the Governor of Trabizon (The Black Sea Region of Anatolia). He learnt the administrative regulations and the military system of the Empire there. He ruled the region very successfully. He improved the Ottoman relations with the neighbourhood states. He organised three campaigns to Georgia against their continuos anti-Ottoman propagandas. With these successful campaigns Selim invaded Kars, Erzurum, Artvin (1508). All the Georgians living in those regions converted to Islam.
Selim was a brilliant rider and a successful fencer. He was very good at wrestling and archery too. He had a military spirit but he was fond of arts as well. He was very modest; for example; he was used to eat only one sort of food from a wooden plate, in every meal.
He never liked vanity, never spent the Empire’s money. During his reign, the treasury was completely full. He sealed the treasury and bequeathed as fallow;
“If any of my successors could fill the treasury as much as I did, would use his own seal, otherwise they all will use my seal”.
This will was kept by Selim’s successors, as none of the Sultans came after him, could have been filled the treasury as much as he did, his seal was used to lock the treasury for centuries.
Although his ancestors were all bearded, he always shaved his beard. He also had an earring.
He died on 22th September 1520 because of cancer. He was just fifty years old. The historians agreed on that, he had short but a very brilliant career.
His sons: Suleyman (the Magnificent) His daughters: Hatice Sultan, Fatma Sultan, Hafsa Sultan, Shah Sultan.
The BATTLE of CALDIRAN
Sultan Bayezid’s failure to suppress the Saffavid’s more decisively caused serious disputes for power and the right of succession among his five adult sons. Selim won this throne struggle and came to throne with an ambition to restore Mehmet II’s energetic policies of conquest and in fact to achieve Mehmet’s goal of establishing a world Empire.
However, when Selim came to throne the Ottoman Empire was in a difficult situation because of the Saffavid’s in the East. Selim had decided to abolish them and open the way through Turkmenistan.
Selim’s main goal was to unite all the Muslim-Turks. He began his campaign to Iran in the spring of 1514. The Saffavids and the Ottomans came across in Caldiran on 23rd of August 1514. The Ottoman army victoriously defeated the Saffavids. The Shah escaped and saved his life.
Selim had continued his campaign and entered Tabriz. He sent many artists and the scientist living in this city to Istanbul. After, this victory Shah Ismail lost his power and the Eastern Anatolia became completely Turkish.
On 15th September 1514, Selim left Tabriz and marched through Karabag, his aim was to spend the winter there and to conquer Iran completely in the spring. However, the condition of the army was not suitable and he went to Amasya. After the victory of Caldiran, Erzincan and Bayburt were invaded, the Castle of Kemah was captured.
In June 1515, the Dulkadirogullari State was defeated in the Battle of Turnadag. As a result of this glory, Diyarbakir, Mardin and Bitlis were captured. Thus, Turkish unity was restored in Anatolia.
The VICTORY of MERCIDABIK
The Ottoman-Saffavid conflict was continuing since the Mehmet the Conqueror’s period. Selim’s Iran campaign increased these conflicts and Saffavid’s allied with the Mamelukes of Egypt. On hearing this allience Selim campaigned to Egypt (June 5, 1516). On the 27th day of August the Ottoman Army arrived the Mameluke borders. On the 18th August the Castle of Antep had surrendered and the Castle of Besni followed it the other day.
The battle had began on 24th August 1516 in Mercidabik. The Mameluke Army fell in defending their lands against the powerful Ottoman artillery. They have surendered. The Mameluke Sultan Gansu Gavri was found dead. With this victory, a passage through Syria was opened to the Ottomans.
The MAMELUKES and the VICTORY of RIDANIYE
Sultan Selim entered Alleppo without any resistance on 19th September 1516. Humus (21st September 1516) and Sam (27th September 1516) had surrendered, the Emirs of Lebanon had accepted the Ottoman supremacy. Sultan Selim went to Jerusalem on 30th December 1516 , to Gazze on 2nd January 1517.
After the Battle of Mercidabik, Tumanbay ascended the throne. He rejected the Ottoman authority, moreover, he killed the Ottoman ambassador sent for reconcilation of the relations. Tumanbay bought new cannons and weapons from the Venetians and he constructed a defence line through Ridaniye.
Sultan Selim and his army passed the Desert of Sina in 13 days and arrived Ridaniye. Sultan Selim was the first commander passed this horrible desert since the ancient times. As a military genius he circled around the El-Mukaddam Mountain and attacked the Mameluke Army from the south. The Mameluke artillery was stationary and they could not have moved the cannons. The Ottoman Army had won this battle in few hours. With this victory, the Mameluke State had came to an end.
CALIPH SULTAN SELIM
Cairo was captured on 24th January 1517, Selim entered Cairo on 4th February 1517. He put an end to the Caliphate of Mameluke Abbassids. Tumanbay had been caught and executed. After the campaign of Egypt; Syria Philistine were annexed into the Ottoman Territories. The Oriental trade roads were gone under the Ottoman authority. The Ottoman treasury has filled up with taxes and bootys. On 6th of July 1516, the Holy Relics (Emanet-i Mukaddese) as Mohammed’s robe, teeth, sword, flag; were sent to Selim from Hedjaz. The last Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkel was deposed from his rank as the spiritual head of Islam, and Selim was invested with the dignity by the sheriff of Mecca on 29th August 1517. Selim consequently added to his other title that of “servant of Mecca and Medina (the holy cities)”. Al-Mutawakkel himself gave his title to Selim and he had had dressed the Caliphate Robe himself in the ceremony in Ayasofya.
Sultan Selim was the first Ottoman Caliph and his successors took the title as well. From this period on the Ottoman Sultans began to be the Sultan of all the Islamic World.
When Selim came to throne, the Ottoman territories were 2.375.000 km square, during his short but very victorious career he enlarged the Ottoman Territories to 6.557.000 km square. He was one of the most important of all the Ottoman sultans. He had a great role in the apogee of the Ottoman Empire.
He had a very successful spy organisation. He had information from all around the country. He was very successful in choosing his officers.
ARCHITECTURE
Sultan Selim firstly enlarge the Docks of Halic (Golden Horn) built by his grand father Mehmet the Conqueror. He had had built many social and commercial complexes. His career is usually filled with military achievements but he had found time to erect some mosques and hospices, as Yavuz Sultan Selim, Diyarbakir Fatih Pasha, Elbistan Ulu Mosques. During his life The Mosque of Selimiye was began to be built but it could not have been completed. His son Suleyman the Magnificent completed it.
KANUNI SULTAN SULEYMAN
(Soliman I)
1520 - 1566
Father Name : Yavuz Sultan Selim Mother Name : Hafsa Hatun Date of Birth : 27 April 1495 Date of Death : 6-7 September 1566 Reign : 1520 - 1566 Territories : 14.983.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Suleyman I was born on 27th April 1495, Monday in Trabzon. His father was Sultan Selim I and his mother was Hafsa Sultan. Suleyman I was a tall man with a round face, hazel eyes broad forehead and a thin beard.
Suleyman the Magnificent had reigned for forty six years (1520-1566) and this is the most memorable epoch of the empire, when it reached a pitch of grandeur and prosperity which was never afterwards surpassed, and from which it soon began to decline.
Suleyman is commonly designated by European writers the “great” or the “magnificent”. But the native historians style him the “lawgiver”(Kanuni), “the lord of his century” and “completor of the perfect ten”.
His father Sultan Selim I put great emphasis on Suleyman's education, he took his first education from his grandmother Gulbahar Hatun. When he reached the age of seven, he was sent to Istanbul to his grandfather Sultan Bayezid II where he was educated by famous scholar Karakizoglu Hayreddin Hizir Efendi. He studied history, science, literature, and theology besides the lessons of war tactics and techniques. Afterwards, he went to his father in Trabzon again and stayed there until he reached 15. At the age of 15, he wanted to be a governor, and he was sent to Sarki province and then to Karahisar and to Bolu, after a short while he was sent to Kefe.
After Sultan Selim I ascended to the throne in 1512, Shehzade Suleyman was invited to Istanbul as the regent of his father Selim whom was dealing with throne struggles with his brothers. At the same time he was the governor of Saruhan province. After Selim I had passed away, Suleyman succeeded him without any rejection as everbody knew he was a very serious and confident man. He never hesitated and never broken the commands he gave. He obliged people according to their capacities and abilities. He died on 7th September 1566, in his 71, while he was commanding the siege of Sziget.
Because he made written laws and applied them strictly he was called as ‘Kanuni’ (Law giver). He was a very gracious ruler, very fair and he never tyrannised his people. For example; he found the tax coming from Egypt so much and he had made a research there and found that the people were overcharged, and discovered the governor was tyrannising them, so he immediately changed the governor.
His sons: Selim II, Bayezid, Abdullah, Murad, Mehmed, Mahmud, Cihangir, Mustafa
His daughters: Mihriman Sultan, Raziye Sultan.
REVOLTS
Suleyman I struggled with some revolts in the first years of his reign. At first, Canbirdi Ghazeli, the governor of Damascus (Egypt) had revolted. His aim was to re-establish the state of Mameluke. He was defeated by the Ottoman Forces led by Sehsuvaroglu Ali Bey in January 1521, and executed. Afterwards , Ahmed Pasha had revolted by saying he should have been the governor of Egypt. Another rebel was Kalender Celebi who took the support of Safevis of Anatolia. The last revolt was in 1527 by Baba Zunun, Suleyman had successfully repressed off all these revolts.
CHARLES and EUROPE
Hungarian King Charles’ main target was to dominate the whole Europe. He captured the King of France Francis who opposed his plans and imprisoned him.
The mother of the King of France, Duchess Dangolen had written a letter and demanded help from Soliman I. Admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha was sent to Nis in the Mediterranean coast of France and defeated Charles. He rescued both France and Francis.
CAMPAIGNS
HUNGARY CAMPAIGNS
Afterwards, Soliman campaigned through Germany. Ottoman forces recaptured Buda and came to Estergon. Then they had advanced through Austria and Germany. Many towns, cities and castles were conquered in Austria and the campaign took seven months. Austria was ruined after these battles. At last Ferdinand wanted a peace treaty and Charles’ plans to conquer whole Europe had been broken (22nd July 1533).
Ferdinand never gave up his aims on Hungary. John Zapolya died and his son Sigmund succeeded him. Ferdinand took advantage of this interragnum on the Hungarian throne and besieged Buda again. Consequently, Soliman I had organised another campaign to Hungary with a more powerful army, in 1540. He appointed Sigmund to the principality of Wallachia and he annexed Buda. Soliman Pasha was appointed as the governor of this city. As a result of this campaign, Austria took only northern part of Hungary. The Ottoman-Hungarian relations continued until the death of Sultan Soliman.
The CAMPAIGN of MALTA
The Knights of Saint John who were settled in the island of Malta after the conquest of Rhodes were a threat for the Ottomans. For the Ottoman domination and the peace of Trablus and Algeria to capture Malta was inevitable. The island was besieged by the Ottoman Navy commanded by Turgut Reis. Unfortunately, Turgut Reis had passed away during the siege and Malta could not have been captured.
CONQUEST/ViCTORiES
CONQUEST of BELGRADE
When Suleyman I ascended the throne, the most powerful state of Europe was the German Empire. The Emperor Charles had very a close relationship with the King of Hungary Lois II. Lois II refused to pay the annual taxes to the Ottomans and he killed the Ottoman ambassadors sent for reconcilation.
Mehmed the Conquerer had been captured Serbia during his campaigns to Europe, but Hungary could not have been conquered, yet. Suleyman I decided to capture Hungary, considering her strategic location and the Ottoman navy besieged Belgrade from the river of Danube. Although the city had been defended very successfully the Ottomans defeated the Hungarians in August 21, 1521. Bali Pasha was appointed as the Belgrade guardian. After this campaign some people from Belgrade sent to Istanbul and a Belgrade village had been established. The conquest of Belgrade was the first conquest of Suleyman I. In the following years, the city had served as an important Ottoman passage to Europe.
The CONQUEST of RHODES
The Europeans dominated the islands of Rhodes, Cyprus, Kyrete and Malta on the Aegean Cost. Moreover, they explored new lands in the open seas and increased their powers. Sultan Suleyman I put emphasis on navigation and many naval victories had been won in his reign.
The island of Rhodes was under the rule of the Knights of St. John. The Knights were pirating in the Turkish seas and threatening the Turkish Navy. Suleyman decided to capture Rhodes and it was conquered in 1522.
The Annexation of Algeria
Baba Oruc and his brother Hizir Reis (Barbaros) captured Algeria from Spain in 1516. Barbaros took control of Algeria in 1518. Sultan Selim I gave them two galleys and levents (marines).
After Suleyman succeeded Selim, he invited Barbaros Hayrettin Pasha to Istanbul and appointed him as The Commander of the Ottoman navy (1533). Thus, Algeria was annexed into the Ottoman territories. Barbaros under Suleyman's protection, captured the Aegean islands belonged to the Venetians.
CONQUEST of TRIPOLI
Charles V of Austria captured Tripoli(Algeria) and he settled the Knights of St. John there. Barbaros Hayreddin's Preveze Victory and the Ottoman-Venetian peace treaty made the Pope and Charles very anxious. They have organised another Crusade Navy and attacked Algeria but they were defeated by the Ottoman Navy (1541).
THE BATTLE of CERBE
After Turgut Reis (Turgut Captain) besieged the island of Cerbe which was dominated by Spain, a Crusader Navy under Andrea Doria’s command had arrived. After a war of a great victory was won by the Ottomans. Cerbe was annexed into Ottoman territories (1559).
The BATTLE of MOHACS
Charles of Germany had become a danger for both Europe and the Ottoman Empire. Francois of France had sent an ambassador to Suleyman and asked for a promise for a campaign to Austria. Suleyman gave his word and the Ottoman Army passed the river Danube and entered Hungary. On 20th August 1526 a disastrous battle had been fought, which Hungary still bears the name of the destruction of Mohacs. The Ottoman army defeated Hungarians in few hours and captured Buda. Hungary became an Ottoman depended kingdom. John Zapolya had been appointed as the king.
The CASTLE of SZIGETH
Sultan Soliman I after the victory of Hungary went back to Istanbul. Until 1566 he struggled with revolts in Anatolia and Iran. In the year 1566, the Sultan once more led his army across Hungary. This was his last campaign. The castle of Szigeth was besieged, unfortunately just few hours before the castle’s fall Sultan Soliman I had passed away on 7th September 1566.
VICTORY of PREVEZE
In Suleyman's period the Ottoman navigation had improved with Barabaros' victories and his great knowledge and experience on the seawars. The Ottomans were dominating the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Islands. The Ottoman authority and extension in the seas agitated the Europeans. Moreover, the campaigns in Austria and Hungary were gloriously continuing. The Europeans decided to organise a Naval Crusade under the command of Admiral Andrea Doria and Venetian, Geneose, Malta, Portuguese and Spanish marines had been organised.
Crusade Navy was composed of 602 ships and the Ottoman Navy had only 122 ships. Two navies came across on the Gulf of Preveze on 27th September 1538. The Ottoman Navy commanded by Barbaros Hayreddin won a victory. As a result of this war the Mediterranean Sea had turned out to be a Turkish lake.
The CAPITULATION
First capitulation was given to the Geneose merchants, in 1352 and they had given the right to merchandise in the Ottoman territories. In 1535, with reconciliation of the Ottoman-French relationships, France represented a draft capitulation to Sultan Suleyman but he had refused this draft in which the equality of two states was the basis. Moreover, an indefinite capitulation was demanded. However, according to the Ottoman laws every privilege given should had been renovated with every Sultan. This law was called as Ahidname (Oath Paper).
The first French capitulation was given just before the campaign of Cyprus, in 1596. To provide an alliance with the Protestant World, against the Catholic world and the Pope, the British were given capitulation in 1580 and Holland took her privilege in 1612. With these caputilations, beside the privilege of merchandising, the rights of the merchants, transit visas, judicial status of the merchants, taxes and security were organised.
In the following centuries, with the regression of the Ottoman Empire the capitulations served as a great burden and they turned out to be a tool of presure in the hands of the Europeans. In 1914, the Ottoman government had abolished all the caputilations with the beginning of World War I although the Europeans had protested.
OTTOMAN and SAFFAVIES
While Soliman I was victoriously campaigning in Europe, many revolts in Anatolia had began. In Iran Akkoyunlu State came to an end but it was replaced by the state of Saffavies. It became a threat for Ottomans. Soliman I went on his firs campaign to Iran after he provided the peace in Europe temporarily by the Treaty of Istanbul. Ssffavies’ antagonist policies to the Ottomans and provocation of the Shii community(an Islamic sect), were the reasons of this campaign. Tebriz, Azerbayjan, Hamedan were invaded. Also Baghdad was captured by the campaign of Iraq (1534).
Shah Tahmas of the Safavie benefited from Sultan Soliman’s Austria campaign and captured Tebriz, Nahcivan and Van. After that Soliman I decided to campaign through Iran for the second time. He returned back to Istanbul victoriously (1548). However, Suffavies attacked again in 1553. The enemy forwarded in Anatolia and came to Mus (Eastern Anatolia) and besieged Erzurum. As a result, Sultan Soliman went on his third campaign to Iran. Revan, Nahcivan and Karabag were captured. Shah Tahmash who was in a difficult situation surrendered and Amasya Peace treaty was signed (1555).
With this treaty the problem of Iran which was continuing in since the time of Sultna Selim I was solved. The Eastern Anatolia, Tebriz and Baghdad were left to the Ottomans. The Treaty of Amasya was the first formal treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Iran. Also it was the first religious peace which was made in Islam World.
ARCHITECTURE
Suleyman I reigned for 46 years. He expanded the state territories into to 14.893.000-km square, which he inherited from his father Selim I, as 6.557.000-km square. The urban revival had continued in his time. At first, he completed the Sultan Selim Mosque which was began to be built by his father Selim I. Other monuments were built in his time are: Coban Mustafa Pasha Mosque and Kulliye (complex of buildings adjacent to mosque) in Gebze, Afyon Sincanli Sinan Pasha Mosque, Bozoyuk Kasim Pasha Mosque.
Suleyman I was a wise statesman. He was very much interested in literature and arts as well, he was a very brilliant poet.
ARCHITECT SINAN (MIMAR SINAN)
Sinan was the greatest architect of the most brilliant period of the Ottoman Empire. He is considered as one of the greatest architects of the world as well. He built his masterpieces during the sultante of Suleyman.
His most important works are: Halep Husrev Pasha Mosque, Istanbul Haseki Kulliye, Istanbul Sehzade Mosque and Medrese (University), Uskudar Mihriman Mosque, Istanbul Suleymaniye Mosque and Kulliye, Tekirdag Rustem Pasha Mosque and Kulliye, Silivrikapi Ibrahim Pasha Mosque, Istanbul Rustem Pasha Mosque, Istanbul Sinan Pasha Mosque, Topkapi Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque and Kulliye, Findikli Molla Celebi Mosque, Babaeski Semiz Ali Pasha Mosque, Buyukcekmece Kanuni Sultan Suleyman Kulliye and Bridge, Suleymaniye Tekke (Dervish Mansion).
SELIM II
(Selim II)
1566 - 1574
Father Name : Kanuni Sultan Suleyman Mother Name : Hurrem Sultan Date of Birth : May 28, 1524 Date of Death : December 15, 1574 Reign : 1566 - 1574 Territories : 15.162.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Selim II was born on 28th May 1524, in Istanbul. He was the son of Suleyman the Magnificant and Hurrem Sultana. Hurrem Sultana was Slav originated. Because, Selim II had blond hair he often called as “Yellow Selim”.
Selim was very well educated. In his father's period he ruled many provinces in Anatolia. While acting as a governor he continued his education.
Suleyman I had passed away when Selim was the governor of Kutahya. On hearing his father's death he went to Istanbul.He succeeded the throne at the age of 42. He was a insignificant sultan compered to his ancestors. His brothers Shehzade Bayezid and Mustafa were killed during his father Suleyman’s period and he ascended the throne without any conflicts. But, he was not as talented as his father Suleyman or his grandfather Selim I. Under successful administrations of experienced statesmen of the period especially grand vizier Sokollu Mehmet Pasha the empire continued to be a world power. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had been the grand vizier for 15 years and it is possible to say that he ruled the empire in this period. Sultan Selim II never went to campaigns himself. Never commanded his army. Inebahti defeat is a result of his Commander of the Seas Ali Pasha’s failure in commanding the navy.
Sultan Selim had died on 5th December 1574, in Istanbul. He was the first Ottoman Sultan died in Istanbul.
Sons: Murad III, Abdullah, Osman, Mustafa, Suleyman, Mehmed, Cihangir. Daughters: Fatma, Sah, Gevherhan, Esma.
CAPTURE of SAKIZ ISLAND
The Ottomans extended their power in maritime too and they captured most of the Mediterranean islands. The island of Sakiz was under the domination of the Geneoise State and they were paying taxes to the Ottoman Empire, besides, their trading was controlling by the Ottomans. The island was one of the important trade centres of the Aegean Sea. The countries without capitulation were bringing their goods to Sakiz and by the Venetian, Genoise and Dubrovic merchants they were selling those goods to the Ottomans.
The Geneoise islanders were not paying their taxes regularly, moreover, they were attacking the Ottoman forces. Under these circumstances, a navy was sent to the island commanded by Piyale Pasha and Sakiz was captured. His victory brought Piyale Pasha the vizier rank, in 1568.
CAMPAIGN to INDONESIA
The Ottomans achieved many overseas glories. To assist the Muslim Ace State in Indonesia an Ottoman Navy emerged by 15-20 ships was sent to the Far East in 1569.
The CAMPAIGN to YEMEN
The power struggle in the Indian Ocean was continuing since Suleyman I’s period. A revolt had began in Yemen and an army sent there, the revolt immediately repressed in 1570.
The CONQUEST of CYPRUS
Cyprus was ruled by the Venetians. Before Ottoman invasion of Egypt, Cyprus was paying taxes to the Mamelukes. After the Turkish invasions the islanders were imposed to taxes to the Ottoman Empire. The island was very significant in terms of its strategic and geographical location. Lala Mustafa Pasha was insisting on the necessity of a campaign to Cyprus. But, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was opposing the campaign considering the possibility of a new crusade.
In October 1570, the Ottomans captured the capital Nicosia (Lefkosa) and most of the small towns of Cyprus. But, Famagusta (Magosa) one of the important cities of the island remained. Lala Mustafa Pasha besieged the city both from the land and the sea. The siege took nearly a year at last the city had surrendered in August, 1571 and Turks settled on the island.
INEBAHTI WAR
After the capture of Cyprus, the Europeans began to organise a new crusade navy. The navy was commanded by Don Juan and it was emerged by the ships of Venice, Spain, Malta, Vatican and the other Italian governments. Experienced admirals of the Ottoman Navy, Pertev Pasha and Uluc Ali Pasha recommended a defence war, but Ali Pasha the Minister of Navy made the first attack.
The war taken place in the North of the island of Morea on 7th October 1571. In the end of the war the Ottomans were defeated and Ali Pasha had died. Uluc Ali Pasha was rescued his ships and he replaced Ali Pasha.
This defeat declined the Ottoman authority in the seas and in the trading roads.
CAPTURE of TUNISIA
The Ottoman Navy under the command of Uluc Ali Pasha sailed through the Mediterranean Sea and, invaded some shores of Tunisia in 1574.
CANAL PROJECTS
Russia invaded Astrahan, her main target was to go down through the Mediterranean. 13 years later the Ottoman government decided to take back the city. They planned to cut a canal between the Don, running into the Sea of Azov from the northwest, and the Volga, running into the Caspian Sea from the northwest. This would link the two seas, the Black Sea, already an Ottoman lake, with the Caspian. It will facilitate the entry of the Turks into Persia and the central Asia. Moreover it will blocade Russia in her intention to go downwards to the Mediteranian.
Defterdar Kasim Bey was appointed for the canal project. He completed one third of the canal. The winter was on the way and the Khan of Crimea was discouraging the Ottoman workers by romouring about the difficulties of winter and the workers gave up working. The Ottomans abandoned the enterprise, they did not begin again.
The Suez Canal was planned in the period of Sultan Selim II but it could not have been began.
ARCHITECTURE
In 1569, the canal of the Black Sea was began to be built. Ayasofya Mosque was restored and two new minarets were constructed. Mimar Sinan built Selimiye Mosque in Edirne in October 30, 1574.
Eyub Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque, Selimiye Mosque in Konya, Sokollu Mosque in Luleburgaz, Sultan Selim Mosque in Payas are some of important monuments erected in Selim II’s period.
MURAD III
(Amurath III)
1574 - 1595
Father Name : Selim II Mother Name : Afife Nur Banu Sultan Date of Birth : July 4, 1546 Date of Death : January 15-16, 1595 Reign : 1574 - 1595 Territories : 19.902.000 km2
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Murad III was born in Manisa, on 4th of July 1546. He was the son of Sultan Selim II and Afife Nur Banu Sultana who was Venetian originated.
He was a gracious ruler, he had spoken Arabic and Persian fluently. After, his father ascended he was appointed as the governor of Manisa. He took lessons from the famous scholars of Manisa. He was one of the most intelligent sultans of the empire. After, his father’s death he went to Istanbul and ascended the throne on 22nd December 1574. Like his father, he left the administration to Sokollu Mehmed Pasha.
Sultan Murad III led a life of pleasures, he never left Istanbul during his reign and he was very much influenced by the women in the palace. The woman dynasty emerged in his period continued in the following years. The mothers and wives of the sultans began to dominate the empire. He ascended the throne at the age of 29 and reigned for nearly 21 years. He died because of apoplexy on 15th January 1595.
With Sokollu Mehmed Pasha’s successful administrations, the Ottomans gained power. The territories extended to 19.902.000 km square. The relations with protestant Britain had been improved against a Catholic unity led by the Pope, and, later Holland joined the Ottoman-Britain alliance. First British capitulation was given and Britain sent a permanent ambassador to Istanbul.
Sons: Mehmed III, Selim Bayezid, Mustafa, Osman, Cihangir, Abdullah, Abdurrahman, Abdullah, Hasan, Ahmed, Yakub, Alemsah, Yusuf, Huseyin, Korkud, Ali, Ishak, Omer, Alauddin, Davud.
Daughters: Ayse, Fatma, Mihrimah, Fahriye.
RELATIONS with POLAND
The King of Poland Henry ascended the throne with assistance Sultan Selim II. The Sultan was intending to ally with Poland against their neighbour Austria.
The beneficial relations with France designed by Suleyman the Magnificent was continuing. Domination on Poland would give the Ottoman Empire superiority on Austria. However, the French King had died and Henry left the Polish throne, and was crowned king in France. Sultan Murad III intervened Poland again and favoured Bathary the Ruler of Transylvania to succeed the throne. The Sultan signed an agreement with Bathary and the security of the northern border of the empire was consolidated.
RELATIONSHIP with VENICE
Until 1584 the Ottoman-Venetian relations were remained peaceful. But in this year, the Venetian navy commanded by Admiral Emmo attacked an Ottoman ship in Kefelonia. That Ottoman ship was bringing the corpses of the Governor of Trablusgarp Ramazan Pasha, his wife and his children killed in the Yeniceri Revolt.
The Venetians, killed 250 Ottoman naval cadets in this attack, raped women and thrown them into sea. The Ottoman council sent an ultimatum to the senate of Venice.
The Venetian Senate accepted the Ottoman ultimatum and executed admiral Emmo, sent the corpses of Ramazan Pasha, his wife and his children and the goods in the ship to the kadi of Preveze.
The Ottomans sent another ultimatum to Venice saying;
“The Venetian pyrites will never touch an Ottoman ship military or civilian. If happens a navy will be immediately sent against Venice.”
The Senate of Venice against the decisiveness of Sultan Murad III sent three ambassadors to Istanbul and tried to solve the conflict tranquilly.
RELATIONSHIP with BRITIAN
The Ottoman-British trade relations were established in this period as Queen Elisabeth I sent two ambassadors to Istanbul and addressed Sultan Murad III as the “Great Turk”. The Sultan responded the Queen as; “We are not only an ally of the federation of England but also the protector of the Queen”.
The first English ambassador William Harborne entered the presence of Sultan Murad III in April 24, 1583 and presented gifts to him. Until this time Genoise, Venetian, Dubrovnic and French merchants had the right for trading in the Ottoman harbours due to the capitulation given in 1569. Elisabeth I was sent the ambassador in order to have a capitulation for merchandising in the Ottoman lands.
The countries without capitulation were entering the Ottoman seas with a French flag. But, the Ottoman Government estranged the Catholics following the blood-bath of St. Bartholomew in 1572. In order to break the war equipment embargo imposed by the Pope, the Ottomans designed firm relations with Protestant England. Consequently, English-French rivalry in the Mediterranean had began and the Ottoman Empire had benefited from this rivalry.
MEHMED III
(Mohammed III)
1595 - 1603
Father Name : Murad III
Mother Name : Safiye Sultan Birth (place and date) : 26 May 1566 Death (place and date) : 20-21 December 1603 Reign : 27 January 1595 - 1603
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Mehmed III was born in Manisa, on 26th May 1566. His father was Sultan Murad III and his mother was Safiye Sultana. His grandfather Suleyman the Magnificent gave his name as an attribution to Mehmed the Conqueror. Mehmed was medium size and he had a handsome face. He had a very strong education. He attended the classes of famous scholar Hoca Sadeddin Efendi. In 1583, he was appointed as Manisa governor.
On 27th January 1595, he succeeded his father.
Sultan Mehmed III admired his mother. His mother Safiye Sultana benefited from this and she dominated the state by using her influence on her son. She forced the sultan to be acted in the way she desired. Mehmed III was a very religious sultan, he appreciated Islam. He was so sensitive that on hearing bad news he had fallen ill. The Celali revolts and the Iran Wars made him so depressed. He prohibited alcohol and closed all the taverns.
Sons: Ahmed I, Mustafa I, Selim, Mahmud
AUSTRIA and WALLACHIA CAMPAIGNS
When Mehmed III came to throne while the Ottoman-Austrian wars were continuing and he immediately focused on the Wallachia problem. In 1595, the Austrian Army besieged the Castle of Estergon. Mehmed Pasha did not assisted the castle although he and his army were 49 km. away from the region. As a result of this negligence, the castle surrendered after a very brave defence.
Sinan Pasha campaigned to Wallachia ruled by Prince Mihai Vitezul. The Ottoman forces invaded Bucharest and Tergoviste. But, Mihai attacked after a while and the Ottoman forces retreated. Many soldiers had died.
Following the fall of the Estergon Castle, Visegrad was occupied by the Austiran forces. The yeniceris reacted against the loss of these important castles, and towns and they forced the sultan for another campaign.
INVASION of the CASTLE of EGRI
As the empire was facing with crisis, Sultan Mehmed III assembled the state council and said:
“From, our forefather, the founder of our empire Osman Ghazi; to our grand father Suleyman the Magnificent all the sultans went campaigns in front of their armies. Our grandfather Sultan Selim II and our father Murad III left this tradition. We too, had mistaken while ordering our pashas campaign. Surely, our soldiers sons would like to see us in front of them. We have decided, were are going to campaign very soon. Be prepared.”
His mother rejected this plan, fearing to let the Sultan out of Istanbul. But her son said;
“Mother, we are a Sultan son of a sultan, why we have armoured this sword in Eyup Sultan Mosque? Our decision is certain we are going for the campaign. We do not sacrifice our state for the throne.” On 20th July the army had moved and the castle of Egri was besieged and on 12th October 1596, it was surrendered to the sultan.
The TRIUMPH of HACOVA
Following the invasion of Egri Castle, the Ottoman army had advanced to Hacova where they came across with the European army, organised by Austria, Germany, Wallachia, Spain, France, and Poland. Austrian archduke Maximillian was commanding this army. In the war, the Ottoman army was failed to defend the riffle shots of the Europeans and many soldiers had died.
But the Ottoman raiders were continuing to struggle very courageously and they defeated their enemies and opened the way through Vienna (26th October 1596).
After this triumph the sultan returned to Istanbul. Satirci Mehmed Pasha was appointed to the Austria front. He recaptured the Tata Castle but he was defeated by the Austrian Army on the north of Budapest. Meanwhile, a peace treaty was tried to be signed with the representatives of Austria. After a while, the Austrians captured the castle of Raab which was invaded by Suleyman the Magnificent (1598).
INVASION of the CASTLE of KANIJE
Satirci Mehmed Pasha did not win a military success for two years. During these years Austria occupied many Ottoman castles. Therefore, Mehmed Pasha was executed and grand vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha replaced him. He marched through Vienna. Meanwhile, Austria demanded peace and offered to give Egri and Hatvan. The Ottoman representatives wanted Estergon, Neograd, Vurek and Yanikkale, as well; and the treaty was abandoned.
Damat Ibrahim Pasha spent the winter in Belgrade, and he begun to put pressure on Austria by besieging the castle of Kanije. The Turkish slaves in the castle exploded the powder magazines and very badly damaged the walls. But, the castle did not surrendered. An army of 20.000 soldiers commanded by Philippe Emanuel arrived to defend the castle. But the Ottoman Army defeated both of the armies and the castle had surrendered.
Kanije was transformed to the centre of the Roumelia region. Tiryaki Hasan Pasha was appointed as the governor of Kanije. Damat Ibrahim Pasha was promised to be the grand vizier as long as he lived (10th September 1601). After this triumph, Istolni, Belgrade and Estergon were invaded (1601-1603).
RELATIONS with IRAN Iran ignored the treaty signed in 1590. Shah Abbas by benefited from the Ottoman-Austria war and declared war in 25th August 1603. Shah Abbas invaded Tabriz and Erivan. Sultan Mehmed III had passed away while this war was lasting. He was 38 years old.
ARCHITECTURE
Sultan Mehmed III had build the Golmarmara Halime Hatun Mosque and for his mother, he build Yeni Valide Mosque. Beside these, Mehmed III had restored many mosques.
AHMED I
(Achmed I)
1603 - 1617
Father Name : Mehmed III Mother Name : Handan Sultan Date of Birth : April 18, 1590 Date of Death : November 21-22, 1617 Reign : December 21, 1603 - 1617
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Ahmed I was born on 18th April 1590 in Manisa. His father was Sultan Mehmet III, his mother was Handan Sultana. He was very well educated, he had spoken Arabic and Persian fluently. He was a very brilliant rider, and a fencer. He was a successful soldier and he was very fond of archery and hunting. He had dressed up so modest. He came to throne after his father’s death on 21st December 1603. Sultan Ahmed I was the first sovereign who organised the administrative regulations since Suleyman the Magnificent. He was a political genius, although he ascended throne very young he administrated the empire very successfully.
In Sultan Ahmed’s life the number 14 was important. He came to throne in the age of 14, he reigned for 14 years and he was the 14th sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
He had died at the age of 28 because of typhus (22nd November 1617.
Sons: Osman II, Murad IV, Ibrahim, Bayezid, Suleyman, Kasim, Mehmed, Hasan, Selim, Hanzade, Ubeyde
Daughters: Gevherhan, Ayse, Fatma, Atike
RELATIONS with IRAN
When Sultan Ahmet came to the throne, the Ottoman Empire was in war with Austria in the West, with Iran in the East. The Ottoman Army commanded by Sinan Pasha marched through Revan but the Persians were plundering the villages on the way. Because of lack of food, the Ottoman Army spent the winter in Van (Eastern Anatolia).
The Ottoman army defeated the Persian commanded by Shah Abbas, their target was to take back Tabriz. But, Shah Abbas made a sudden attack and defeated the Ottomans and they withdrew firstly to Van and after to Diyarbakir. As the Ottoman-Austrian war was continuing, grand vizier Nasuh Pasha accepted Shah Abbas’ request of peace. In 1612 the Ottoman-Iran war was ended with the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha.
The REVOLTS of CELALI
Celal of Yozgat revolted with his thousands of supporters during the period of Selim I. This revolt had been repressed but conflicts in Anatolia had continued. In Ahmed’s period these revolts appeared again. Tavil Ahmed, Canbolatoglu, Kalenderoglu and Deli Hasan had revolted. Grand vizier Kuyucu Murad Pasha was a very strict soldier and he was rather cruel. He repressed these revolts so violently. He killed even the innocent people, but he ended the revolt.
ARCHITECTURE
On 4th January 1610, the foundation of famous Sultanahmet Mosque was laid. Sultan himself worked as a labourer. The mosque was completed in June 1617. The other mosques built in his period are; Istanbul Mesih Pasha Mosque, Piyale Pasha Mosque, Omer Pasha Mosque.
MUSTAFA I
(Mustapha I)
1607 - 1618 ; 1622 - 1623
Father Name : Mehmed III Mother Name : Handan Sultan Birth (place and date) : 1592 Death (place and date) : 20 January 1639 Reign : 22.11.1617 - 26.02.1618
19.05.1622 - 10.09.1623
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Mustafa was born in 1592 in Manisa. His father was Mehmet III, his mother was Handan Sultana. He came to throne two times. He had a neurotic character.
Sultan Mustafa I lived a prisoners life in his room for fourteen years during his brother Sultan Ahmet’s reign. In this period, the throne heirs were isolated or killed to hinder the throne struggles. Sultan Ahmed I did not kill his brother but imprisoned him. The isolation of the heirs was named as the “cage life”.
After 14 years of cage life, Mustafa came to throne, but, as a result of his abnormal behaviours the military council and the statesmen dethroned him. Sultan Osman II (Osman the Young) ascended the throne after him. But, the yeniceris dismissed Sultan Osman II and killed him. Mustafa was enthroned again. But, after one and a half year he was dethroned.
Sultan Mustafa I was a very religious man. He was a very gracious ruler. He thrown golden coins to the pool for the servants. He spent his life by reading books about Islam and praying. When he was invited to the throne for the second time he rejected by saying “I am reading the Koran and I do not want to be the Sultan”.
His second reign was abolished by the declaration of the Seyhulislam (Minister of Islamic Issues), in this declaration the Seyhulislam said “a neurotic can not be the Caliph”. Mustafa I had died 16 years after his dethronment because of a nervous attack he had on 20th January 1639.
REVOLT of ABAZA PASHA
After the murder of Osman the Young, the cavalry soldiers had revolted in May 22 1622. Abaza Pasha was revolted too. Under these circumstances the murderers of Osman were executed.
GENC OSMAN
(Othman II)
1618 - 1622
Father Name : Ahmed I Mother Name : Mahfiruz Haseki Sultana Birth (place and date) : 3 November 1604 Death (place and date) : 20 May 1622 Reign : 26 February 1618 - 1622
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Osman II was born on 3rd November 1604, in Istanbul. His father was Sultan Ahmed and his mother was Haseki Sultana who was Greek originated. Osman II was enthroned when he was 14 years old, following his uncle Mustafa's dethronment. His mother was very careful about his training. Sultan Osman had a strong education. He learned the eastern and the western languages as Arabic, Persian, Latin, Greek and Italian, fluently that he translated the classics. Osman II had a very handsome face, he was so clever, energetic, and bold.
Sultan Osman II married Sheikulislam Er’ad Efendi’s and Pertev Pasha’s daughters but it was untraditional since Sultan Mehmed II’s period. This manner of him was a great change because, since the sultanate Selim I, the sultans had not married outside the palace.
Osman II could have not found himself a grand vizier who could hold his plans. He was dethroned and murdered in the Yedikule Dungeons, he was buried near the tomb of his father Sultan Ahmed I, in the Sultan Ahmed Mosque.
Sultan Osman was a reformer, he reformed many governmental issues. He limited the authority of the seyhulislam (Minister of Islamic issues) as soon as he ascended the throne.
ACTUAL
Sultan Osman was a writer and a poet. He wrote poems in Persian with Farisi pen name. The sultan who was murdered at a very young age revealed his sorrow in his poetry.
His sons: Omer, Mustafa His daughters: Zeynep
The RELATIONSHIP with IRAN
When Sultan Osman II came to the throne Grand Vizier Halil Pasha was on Iran campaign. Although the Ottoman army was defeated in Pul-i Sikeste, Iranians wanted peace because of the possible Ottoman invasion to Erdebil city. In the Sera desert, the Sera Treaty was signed; between two countries based on the Nasuh Pasha Agreement signed before (26th September 1618).
ITALY And MEDITERRENEAN CAMPAIGNS
The Ottoman fleet commanded by Halil Pasha went on campaign, in the summer of 1620. After leaving Istanbul, the fleet came to Navarino and sailed through the north, and then to the Adriatic. Two Italian ships were occupied in Dirac. The Ottoman navy landed on the Italian shores and occupied Manfredonia dominated by Spain.
POLAND CAMPAIGN
There was a friendly relation between the Ottoman Empire and Poland. Dinyester River was forming the territory between two countries. Although a tension was emerged between the Ottoman Empire and Poland during the Ottoman-Austrian wars, peace was not violated. But, the Khan of Crimea who gained the cast of military union by the campaigns to Poland, was ignoring peace. Also, the Polish occupied the Hotin Castle that was dominated by Moldavia, and interfered the internal affairs of Moldavia (1617). Besides they continued to interfere in the internal affairs of Wallachia and Transilvania. Upon these events Sultan Osman decided to campaign Poland. Meanwhile, the forces commanded by Ozi Governor Iskender Pasha defeated the Polish army in Yas (20th September 1620).
Sultan Osman II marched through Poland, on April of 1621. Poland was trying to organise a stronger army. With Austria’s assistance they extended their army. The Ottoman Army came to the fore of Hotin on 2nd September 1620. The castle was besieged. In the battle the Polish army occupied the ottoman fronts and the yeniceris lost their courage and concentration. The Polish ambassadors declared that, they caused the war, and the Hotin Treaty was signed (20th September 1621). According to the treaty; the Polish and the Ottomans would not attack each other’s territories and Poland would give 40.000 coins to the Crimea Khan as it had been before.
REFORM MOVEMENTS
Sultan Osman realised that, the war against Poland was lost as a result of the army’s the lack of concentration and courage. He decided to reform the military system. He started his reforms with the Kapikulu Corps. When he understood that the number of soldiers were less than the number of people that were registered in book of salary he stopped paying extra money. With this event an enmity between the soldiers had raised against the sultan.
Sultan Osman II was aware of all the abuses in the administrative system but, he was so inexperienced that he could not have guessed where to start. He wanted to establish a new army, composed by the soldiers of Anatolia, Egypt and Syria. At the same time he had ideas about reforms on the palace, harem and science organisations and he was planning to organise a new judicial system. The Kapikulu Corps were anxious about this situation and they did not spare themselves pointing out it. The educated class led by sheyulislam Es’ad Efendi was so silent.
The yeniceris learned that Sultan Osman had sent a secret will to the Halep, Erzurum, Sam and Egypt Governors in order to register new soldiers. The sultan wanted to go to Anatolia in order to collect soldiers. Meanwhile, a new of revolt led by Durzu Maanozlu Fahrettin was begun in Lebanon. Sultan Osman, told that he would go to Anatolia in order to press the revolt. But, the grand vizier Dilaver Pasha and sehyulislam Es’ad Efendi told him that “it is inconvenient for the great Sultan to go to Anatolia for an unimportant revolt” and tried to prevent him from going to Anatolia. Sultan Young Osman who realised that he had no other alternative declared that, he would make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Since then, sultans never made pilgrimage, before. Grand Vizier Dilaver Pasha and Es’ad Efendi, tried to dissuade Sultan Young Osman from his plans. The governors of the cities that Sultan would have passed through were informed and ordered to restore the safety. 500 yeniceris and cavalry would given to the sultan and the others left in Istanbul in order to protect the city. The grand vizier, and many important officers and clerks would have joining the group going to Mecca.
SULTAN YOUTG OSMAN's MURDER
A day before the setting up the sultan’s tent in Uskudar the yeniceris gathered in the Suleymaniye. The yeniceris rebelled and they attacked the palace and killed some state officials. Sultan Osman tried reconcile the yeniceris. But, they rejected his authority. They dethroned him and enthroned his brother Mustafa I for the second time. The rebels were not planing to kill the sultan. But the chiefs of the revolt knew that Osman was a powerful sultan and he would have been a danger in the future. They brought him to the Yedikule Dungeons and killed him there. Osman so bravely struggled against his eight executioners but he was strangled. His funeral was held in Sultan Ahmed Mosque the next day and he was buried in his father’s tomb in the same mosque. Sultan Osman’s murder caused many revolts in Anatolia. The Ottoman people never tolerated the murder of the sultan enthroned at the most beautiful days at his youth and always worked for the welfare of his nation. But his youth and inexperienced administrations, prepared him this horrible end.
MURAD IV
(Amurath IV)
1623 - 1640
Father Name : Ahmed I Mother Name : Mahpeyker Kosem Sultan Birth (place and date) : 27 July 1612 Death (place and date) : 8-9 February 1640 Reign : 10 September 1623 - 1640
BIOGRAPHY
Sultan Murad IV was born in June 26, 1612 in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Ahmet I and his mother is Mahpeyker Kosem Sultana. His mother is Greek originated. Murad was a tall, huge man with a round face. He is one of the most powerful sultans of the Ottoman history. He was very good at archery. He was so intelligent, strong, courageous and energetic. He proved his strength in the wars he had taken place.
Murad was a very religious man and he called the Seyhulislam Yahya Efendi (Minister of Religious Affairs) as “father”. He had forbidden tobacco and alcohol. In his period to go out at nights was forbidden too. He had spoken Arabic and European languages. He was very fond of science and he encouraged the scientists for new inventions. For example; he supported Hazerfen Ahmet Celebi, who made first flight in the history by affixing wings. Ahmet Celebi flew from the Tower of Galata to Uskudar.
Sultan Murad followed closely the circumstances around and he interfered if necessary. During his first years he reigned under the guardianship of his mother, afterwards he ended the sovereignty of women in the palace and he punished the disloyal and deceitful viziers. He tried to solve the problems of the empire. He reigned for 17 years but he died at the age of 28 because of an illness.
His sovereign can be considered in two parts. He was ascended at the age of 11 and his mother Kosem Sultan ruled the country. Kosem Sultan and the viziers on her side had lynched Hafiz Ahmet Pasha to the soldiers, in front of child sultan. This period was attended with great disasters. The peace and harmony in the Ottoman lands were completely lost and tyrants became the rulers of the cities. Murad took the authority in his adolescent and repressed all the tyrants, and he re-established the supremacy of Sultan. By prohibiting tobacco he assimilated the idles gathering in the taverns. He restored the judicial regulations by very strict punishments and even by many executions.
STRUGGLE with IRAN
When Murad came to throne the Ottoman Empire was socially and economically declining. In Anatolia and Roumelia rebels were gaining power. There were riots all over the country. In this period Yusuf Pasha was governor of Egypt. But, another man wealthy and powerful Subasi Bekir was dominating the region. He revolted and tried to take all the control, Abaza Mehmet Pasha also assisted him. Subasi Bekir declared that he wanted to be the Governor of Egypt and the Ottoman Government has sent him a written command and appointed him as the government. However, at the beginning of his revolt he asked for a Saffavian assistance and the Saffavies sent him an army, as soon as Subasi Bekir received the written command he sent the Saffavian forces back. Shah Abbas of Saffavies tried to take advantage of this confusion and captured Baghdad in 1624.
The war continued for seventeen years. During the first years of this war, Sultan Murad IV was a child, and Saffavies gained many successes. Sultan Murad IV firstly, repressed the revolts, restored the administrative regulations and concentrated on the Ottoman-Saffavi war. He decided to command the army himself and organised the raiders. On his way to Iran he visited the tomb of Mevlana in Konya. He marched through Revan with 100.000 soldiers. He recaptured Revan the Saffevian Army withdrew, the Ottoman forces advanced through the River Aras and taken back Tabriz, this was the sixth time Ottomans invaded Tabriz. But, winter was coming and the health of Sultan was not suitable for a further movement and the Ottoman Army returned to Istanbul. But, Saffavies had began new raids in the region.
CAPTURE of BAGDAD
After, Saffavies taken back Revan and continued their action in the Ottoman territories, Sultan Murad IV decided to organise a campaign to Baghdad. On the 198th day of his departure from Istanbul, he arrived Baghdad in November 16, 1638. He blockaded the castle of Baghdad for thirty days and battled courageously. He castle surrendered in the end.
The treaty of Kasr-i Sirin was signed, Azerbaycan and Revan were left to the Saffavies, the Ottomans took Baghdad and the Zagros Mountains were accepted as the border line between two countries.
STRUGGLE with POLAND
The Ottoman-Saffavie war and interior problems caused new problem especially in Poland and Crimea. Political conflicts occurred in Crimea, in order to hinder these conflicts Sultan Murad IV ascended Can Giray to throne and restored Ottoman authority there. Poland had accepted the Ottoman supremacy and to pay annual taxes in 1630. But, they began not to pay taxes and Sultan Murad decided to declare a war against Poland. Polish King Vladislas asked for peace and the treaties between two countries were renovated.
ARCHITECTURE
Sultan Murad IV put emphasis on architecture and in his period many monuments were erected. Some of the are; Ok Meydani Mosque, Bayram Pasha Dervish Lodge, Tomb, Fountain, Primary School, Konya Serefeddin Mosque.
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